What is the fundamental difference between a 'push factor' and a 'pull factor'?

A push factor is a negative condition at the origin that compels someone to leave, while a pull factor is a positive attribute at the destination that attracts them. Migration usually occurs when the combination of these factors outweighs the costs of moving.

How does 'forced migration' differ from 'impelled migration'?

Forced migration occurs when individuals have no choice but to move due to immediate threats like war or slavery. Impelled migration occurs when individuals move due to unfavorable conditions (like a natural disaster) where they still retain a small degree of choice, though the pressure to leave is extreme.

What is the difference between internal and international migration?

Internal migration involves moving within the borders of a single country (e.g., rural-to-urban), while international migration involves crossing national boundaries. International migration typically faces much higher intervening obstacles, such as visa requirements and cultural shifts.

Why is it a misconception that only the poorest people migrate internationally?

International migration requires significant 'migration capital,' including money for travel, visas, and smugglers, as well as social connections. The extremely poor often lack these resources and are more likely to be 'trapped' or move only short distances internally.

What common error is made when ignoring 'intervening obstacles' in migration models?

Ignoring obstacles leads to the false assumption that people will always move if a wage gap exists. In reality, physical barriers, legal restrictions, and the emotional cost of leaving family can prevent migration even when economic incentives are high.

Why is it incorrect to label all migrants as 'refugees'?

A refugee is a specific legal status for someone fleeing persecution or conflict. Many migrants move voluntarily for economic or social reasons; mislabeling them ignores the different legal protections and motivations involved in their movement.

Define 'Intervening Obstacles' in the context of Lee's Model.

Intervening obstacles are any factors that hinder or complicate the journey from origin to destination. These include physical barriers (mountains, seas), human factors (traffickers, border guards), and legal factors (immigration policies).

What is a 'Diaspora' and how does it affect migration?

A diaspora is a community of people who have spread from their original homeland to other areas. They facilitate further migration by providing social networks, job leads, and financial support to new migrants from their home country.

Define 'Relative Deprivation' as a cause of migration.

Relative deprivation is the perception that one is worse off than others in their immediate community. This psychological state drives migration as individuals seek to improve their status to match or exceed that of their peers who have already migrated.

How does Neoclassical Economic Theory explain migration flows?

It explains migration as a result of wage differences between regions. Labor moves from areas where it is abundant (low wages) to areas where it is scarce (high wages) until the wage gap is minimized.

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Summary

Migration is a complex demographic process driven by a combination of repulsive forces at the origin and attractive forces at the destination. Understanding these causes requires analyzing the interaction between economic, social, political, and environmental factors, while accounting for the physical and legal barriers that influence the movement of people.

1. Definition & Core Concepts

Migration is defined as the permanent or semi-permanent change of residence by an individual or group from one geographical location to another. It is categorized into internal migration (within a country) and international migration (across national borders).
The study of migration causes focuses on the motivational drivers that trigger the decision to move, which are often classified into voluntary, forced, or impelled categories.
Voluntary migration occurs when a person chooses to move based on perceived benefits, whereas forced migration involves a lack of choice due to external threats like conflict or persecution.

2. The Push-Pull Framework (Lee's Model)

Push Factors are negative conditions at the place of origin that encourage individuals to leave, such as high unemployment, lack of services, or environmental degradation.
Pull Factors are positive attributes of a destination that attract migrants, including higher wages, better educational opportunities, and political stability.
Migration decisions are rarely based on a single factor; instead, they result from a comparison of the net advantages of the destination versus the origin, mediated by personal perceptions.
Intervening Obstacles are the challenges that lie between the origin and destination, such as physical distance, border controls, costs of travel, and language barriers.

Lee's Push-Pull Model showing Origin with push/pull factors, Destination with pull/deterrent factors, and Intervening Obstacles in between.

3. Economic Drivers & Theories

4. Social, Political, and Environmental Factors

5. Key Distinctions

6. Exam Strategy & Tips