How does the Theory of the Four Humours differ from the Theory of Opposites?

The Four Humours is a diagnostic framework defining the four liquids in the body, while the Theory of Opposites is a treatment method that uses opposite properties (like heat to treat cold) to restore balance.

Contrast the medical approach of Hippocrates with the anatomical approach of Galen.

Hippocrates emphasized external clinical observation and symptom tracking, whereas Galen focused on internal structures and anatomy derived from animal dissections.

What is the difference between an 'emetic' and a 'laxative' in the context of humoural balancing?

An emetic is used to purge the body by inducing vomiting to remove excess yellow bile, while a laxative is used to clear excess black bile through the bowels.

Why is it historically inaccurate to describe Hippocrates and Galen as 'Medieval physicians'?

Hippocrates lived in Ancient Greece (5th century BCE) and Galen in Ancient Rome (2nd century CE), meaning they lived hundreds of years before the medieval period began.

What was the major error in Galen's anatomical theories regarding the human body?

Galen performed dissections on animals like pigs and apes rather than humans, which led him to believe erroneously that human anatomy matched those of animals.

Why did physicians in the Middle Ages rarely challenge the mistakes in Galen's texts?

Physicians were educated to believe that ancient texts were infallible, and the Church actively discouraged or banned the human dissection required to prove Galen wrong.

What are the four substances identified in the Theory of the Four Humours?

The four substances are Blood, Phlegm, Yellow Bile (Choler), and Black Bile. Each was associated with specific properties and elements.

Define the Hippocratic Oath and its significance in medical history.

It is an ethical code for physicians that emphasizes doing no harm and maintaining patient confidentiality, reflecting the shift toward professional medical ethics.

What is 'Clinical Observation' as practiced by Hippocrates?

It is the process of observing a patient's symptoms, recording them systematically, and using that data to predict the outcome of an illness before treating it.

Why did the Medieval Church support Galen's medical theories so strongly?

Galen believed the body was so complex it must have been designed by a 'creator,' an idea that fit perfectly with Christian teachings on the soul and God.

Hippocrates & Galen | AQA GCSE History

Britain: Health & the People: c1000 to the Present Day

Hippocrates & Galen

Summary

This article explores the foundational contributions of Hippocrates and Galen to Western medical thought, detailing the Theory of the Four Humours and the Theory of Opposites which dominated medicine for over a millennium.

1. Definition & Core Concepts

Hippocrates (5th Century BCE): An Ancient Greek physician widely regarded as the Father of Modern Medicine due to his shift toward naturalistic observation.
Galen (2nd Century CE): An Ancient Roman physician who expanded upon Greek theories and dominated medical thinking for 1,400 years.
Clinical Observation: The methodology of recording a patient's symptoms carefully before attempting a diagnosis, a practice championed by Hippocrates.
Anatomy: The study of the body's structure, which Galen investigated through animal dissection, providing the basis for his physiological theories.

2. Underlying Principles

Theory of the Four Humours: Hippocrates theorized that the human body is composed of four distinct liquids: Blood, Phlegm, Black Bile, and Yellow Bile (Choler).
Humoural Balance: Health was defined as a state of equilibrium between these humours; an excess or deficiency of any one liquid resulted in illness.
Cosmological Links: The humours were intimately connected to the four seasons (Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter) and the four elements (Air, Fire, Earth, Water).
Teleology: Galen believed that the body was designed by a 'creator' for specific purposes, an idea that later aligned with monotheistic religious doctrines.

Diagram showing the four humours and their associated properties of hot, cold, wet, and dry.

3. Methods & Techniques

Theory of Opposites: Galen's advancement where treatments involved applying the opposite property to the patient's perceived humoural excess.
Practical Application: A patient suffering from a 'cold' ailment like phlegm would be treated with 'hot' remedies, such as eating peppers or hot food.
Blood-letting: A common procedure to remove an excess of blood, often performed by barber-surgeons under the guidance of a physician's humoural diagnosis.
Regimen Sanitatis: A holistic approach to health involving diet, hygiene, and exercise to maintain long-term humoural balance.

4. Key Distinctions

5. Exam Strategy & Tips

6. Common Pitfalls & Misconceptions