What is the difference between an extraneous variable and a confounding variable?

An extraneous variable is any 'extra' factor that might affect the DV if not controlled. A confounding variable is an extraneous variable that was not controlled and changed systematically with the IV, making it impossible to tell which one caused the change in the DV.

How does the goal of reliability differ from the goal of validity in research procedures?

Reliability focuses on the consistency and replicability of the procedure (getting the same results again). Validity focuses on the accuracy and truth of the results (measuring what you intended to measure).

When should a researcher use counterbalancing instead of random allocation?

Counterbalancing is used in repeated measures designs where the same participants do all conditions to avoid order effects. Random allocation is used in independent groups designs to ensure participant variables are spread evenly between different groups.

What is the 'order effect' error in repeated measures designs?

Order effects occur when the sequence of tasks influences the outcome, such as participants performing better in the second condition due to practice, or worse due to boredom and fatigue.

What happens to a study's validity if the research environment is too artificial?

The study suffers from low ecological validity. This means the findings may not generalize to real-life behavior because the controlled procedure does not reflect how people act in natural settings.

What is the risk of failing to standardise instructions given to participants?

Non-standardised instructions introduce a 'researcher effect' or extraneous variable, where different participants receive different information, making the results inconsistent and the study impossible to replicate accurately.

Define 'Standardisation' in the context of research.

Standardisation is the use of identical procedures, instructions, and timings for all participants in a study to ensure that the only difference between groups is the Independent Variable.

What is 'Operationalisation'?

Operationalisation is the process of defining variables in terms of the specific, measurable actions or procedures used to manipulate or observe them (e.g., defining 'hunger' as 'hours since last meal').

What are the two key ethical components of a research procedure?

The briefing (where participants are informed of the study and give consent) and the debriefing (where the researcher explains the full aim and ensures the participant is unharmed after the study).

Why is replication important for scientific theories?

Replication allows other scientists to repeat a study using the same procedures. If the results are consistent across different replications, the theory gains reliability and scientific weight.

Research Procedures | AQA GCSE Psychology

Research Procedures

Summary

Research procedures encompass the systematic protocols and controls implemented during a study to ensure that results are consistent, replicable, and valid. By utilizing standardisation, counterbalancing, and variable control, researchers minimize the influence of outside factors, thereby strengthening the causal link between independent and dependent variables.

1. Definition & Core Concepts

Standardisation refers to the process of keeping the research environment and experience identical for every participant across all conditions. This includes providing the exact same instructions, using identical materials, and maintaining consistent timings for tasks.
Procedural Rigor involves the formal steps taken before, during, and after data collection, such as the briefing (explaining the study and obtaining consent) and the debriefing (explaining the true nature of the study after participation).
The primary goal of these procedures is to ensure that any observed change in the Dependent Variable (DV) is solely due to the manipulation of the Independent Variable (IV).

Flowchart showing how standardisation leads to replicability and reliability, supported by control mechanisms.

2. Underlying Principles

Reliability is the consistency of a measure or a study; if a procedure is highly standardised, another researcher should be able to repeat it and achieve similar results.
Replicability is a cornerstone of the scientific method, allowing the wider scientific community to verify findings by following the exact 'recipe' of the original research procedure.
Internal Validity is protected when procedures successfully isolate the IV, ensuring that no other factors interfere with the results.

3. Methods & Techniques

Counterbalancing is a technique used in repeated measures designs to eliminate order effects. It involves splitting the sample so that half perform Condition A then B, while the other half perform Condition B then A.
Random Allocation ensures that participants have an equal chance of being placed in any condition, which helps distribute individual differences (participant variables) evenly across the study.
Environmental Control involves keeping physical factors like room temperature, lighting, and time of day constant to prevent them from influencing participant performance.

4. Key Distinctions

5. Exam Strategy & Tips

6. Common Pitfalls & Misconceptions