Ethical Considerations

• Deontological Ethics focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions based on a set of rules or duties, regardless of the consequences. In this framework, an action is ethical if it adheres to a moral law, such as the duty to tell the truth even if it causes temporary discomfort.

• Utilitarianism (Consequentialism) evaluates the morality of an action based on its outcome, aiming for the 'greatest good for the greatest number.' This approach often involves a cost-benefit analysis where the total utility ($U = \sum ext{Benefits} - \sum ext{Risks}$) must be positive.

• Virtue Ethics emphasizes the character and intent of the practitioner rather than specific rules or outcomes. It suggests that ethical behavior flows naturally from a person who possesses traits like honesty, courage, and compassion.

Comparison of Privacy Protections

• Ethics vs. Law: While laws are enforceable rules created by governments, ethics are internal or professional moral codes. An action can be legal but unethical (e.g., exploiting a loophole to avoid transparency) or ethical but illegal (e.g., whistleblowing in certain restrictive regimes).

• Identify the Stakeholders: When presented with an ethical dilemma, always list every party affected, including indirect participants like the community or future generations. Exams often reward the ability to see beyond the immediate subject.

• The 'Vulnerable Population' Check: Always look for groups that may have diminished autonomy, such as children, prisoners, or those with cognitive impairments. These groups require extra layers of protection and stricter IRB scrutiny.

• Conflict of Interest (COI): Be alert for scenarios where personal gain (financial or professional) might cloud objective judgment. The standard ethical response is full disclosure and, if necessary, recusal from the decision-making process.

• Verify the 'Passive Consent' Trap: In many academic contexts, 'passive consent' (assuming agreement if no objection is raised) is considered ethically insufficient. Always look for 'active, affirmative consent' as the gold standard.

• The Legality Fallacy: A common mistake is assuming that if a procedure is legal, it is automatically ethical. Ethical standards are often higher and more nuanced than the 'floor' established by the law.

• Ignoring Secondary Data Risks: Students often believe that using existing data requires no ethical review. However, if that data can be re-identified or was collected without original consent for the new purpose, ethical violations can occur.

• Underestimating 'Minimal Risk': Just because a study involves only surveys or observations doesn't mean it is risk-free. Psychological distress, social stigma, or economic harm are valid risks that must be addressed.